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This MathOverflow thread is a goldmine. Some highlights:

• Lewis Carroll invented a cute formula for determinants.
• Sophie Germain published as "Monsieur Antoine Auguste Le Blanc" to hide the fact ey were a woman.
• Student's t-distribution was invented by William Sealy Gosset who used the pseudonym "Student" to avoid lawsuits by Guinness, where ey worked at the time.
• Isaac Newton used the pseudonym "Ieoua Sanctus Unus" in eir writing about alchemy. That means "God, unique and saint" in Latin but is also an anagram of "Isaacus Neutonus".